The Human Genome Project: Advantages and Disadvantages

The Human Genome frame Advantages and Di melancholicvantagesThe Human Genome Project was an trans case research front to determine the chronological succession of the tender genome and target the factors that it contains. After the idea was picked up in 1984 by the US organisation when the planning started, the project formally began in 1990 and was completed in 2003, 2 years ahead of its original schedule. The Project was coordinated by the subject Institutes of Health and the U.S. Department of Energy. Additional contri scarceors included universities across the United States and international partners in the United Kingdom, France, Ger many an new(prenominal)(prenominal), Japan, and China.GoalsThe main goals of the Human Genome Project were to provide a complete and accurate succession of the 3 billion DNA bum pairs that make up the human genome and to find all of the estimated 20,000 to 25,000 human genes. The sequence would act as a template for the annotation of ge nes discovered in the future if a geneticist found a novel gene that increases the seek for breast cancer, for instance, she should be able to decipher its precise location and sequence by mapping it to the master sequence of the human genome. By equivalence abnormal genes to the normal genes in the template, the geneticist would be able to map the fluctuation responsible for causing the disease.BenefitsThe potential benefit of a comprehensive sequencing effort was highlighted by the isolation of disease-linked genes such as Huntingtons disease, Cystic Fibrosis, and the approximately normal breast-cancer-associated gene, BRCA1. The genius-gene-at-a- time approach was very inefficient and laborious. It only worked for monogenic diseases. But intimately common human diseases ar genomic polygenic diseases caused by multiple genes dish out diffusely throughout the human genome. Cancer and mental illnesses atomic number 18 examples of genomic diseases. populace versus Private ApproachesIn 1998, a similar, privately funded quest was launched by the American researcher Craig Venter, and his firm Celera Genomics. Venter was a scientist at the NIH during the early nineties when the project was initiated. The $300,000,000 Celera effort was intended to proceed at a fast-paced pace and at a fraction of the cost of the roughly $3 billion publicly funded project.Celera used a technique called self-colored genome scattergun sequencing, employing pairwise end sequencing, which had been used to sequence bacterial genomes of up to six ane thousand million base pairs in length, scarce not for anything nearly as full-gr witness as the three billion base pair human genome.Celera ab initio denote that it would seek patent protection on only 200-300 genes, provided later amended this to seeking intellectual property protection on fully-characterized important structures amounting to 100-300 targets. The firm eventually filed preliminary (place-holder) patent app lications on 6,500 whole or partial genes. Celera withal promised to publish their findings in accordance with the ground of the 1996 Bermuda Statement, by releasing new info annually (the HGP released its new data daily), although, un interchangeable the publicly funded project, they would not permit free redistri neverthelession or scientific use of the data. Ultimately, Celera afreed to provide free access to academic researchers but with several(prenominal) important constraints.Although a working draft was announce on June 26, 2000 (jointly by U.S. President Bill Clinton and the British Prime Minister Tony Blair), it was not until February 2001 that Celera and the HGP scientists make details of their drafts. These drafts covered about 83% of the genome (90% of the euchromatic regions with 150,000 gaps and the order and orientation of many segments not yet established). In February 2001, at the time of the joint publications, insistence releases announced that the project had been completed by both groups. Improved drafts were announced in 2003 and 2005, filling in to approximately 92% of the sequence currently.The book of ManIt has 3,088,286,401 letters of DNAIt is dissociated into twenty-three pairs of chromo roughlys. tout ensemble dissipate apes have twenty-four pairs.It converts about 20,687 genes in total only 1,796 more(prenominal) than worms, and 12,000 fewer than corn.It is fiercely inventive. Gene regulation and gene splicing are used more extensively in the human genome than in the genome of other organisms. It squeezes complexity out of simplicity, produces near-infinite functional variations out of its limited repertoire.It is dynamic. In some cells, it reshuffles its own sequence to make novel variant of itself.Parts of it are surprisingly beautiful.An enormous proportion (about 98%) is not dedicated to genes per se, but to enormous stretches of DNA that are interspersed in the midst of genes (intergenic DNA) or indoors genes (introns). These stretches encode no RNA, and no protein.It is encrusted with history.It has repeated elements that appear frequently.It has enormous gene family genes that resemble separately other and perform similar functions which often constellate together.It contains thousands of pseudogenes genes that were once functional but ahve become nonfunctional, ie, they give rise to no protein or RNA.It accommodates enough variation to make each one of us distinct, but enough consistency to make each of us variant from other species.Its for the first time gene, on chromosome one, encodes a protein that senses smell in the nose. Its determination gene, on chromosome X, encodes a protein that modulates the interaction mingled with cells of the immune sy noneffervescent hunt.The ends of its chromosomes are tag with telomeres. Like the little bits of plastic at the ends of shoelaces, these sequences of DNA are designed to protect the chromosomes from fraying and degenerating.Al though we fully under(a)stand the genetic code ie how the teaching in a single gene is used to build protein we toil virtually nothing of the genomic code ie, how multiple genes spead across the human genome coordinaet gene expression in space and time to build, maintain, and repair a human organismIt imprints and erases chemical marks on itself in response to alterations in its environment thereby encoding a form of cellular memory.It is collected to evolute. It is littered with the debris of its past.Gandhi The Hindoo- Moslem GapGandhi The Hindoo-Muslim GapIntroductionThe opening years of the twentieth century were stormy. That was the time when the greatest catastrophe of history took place. The policy-making scenario was undergoing a change. The British were beginning to feel a bit uneasy. discontentedness was brewing. policy-making discontent was growing due to the inability of the regimen to set effective relief during the period of plague and famine. In order t o stem the discontent, the British vie the political trump card with great aplomb. For the first time, they used their divide-and- manage political game with great force. From 1870 on state of wards, the British started inciting the Hindus and the Muslims to form their own political parties to establish their distinct unearthly identities. That was perhaps, the beginning of the communalisation of governance. The British not only encouraged the 2 communities to form political parties along phantasmal lines, they took various constructive steps to create a situation whereby Hindus and Muslims would be forced to think in a way as if their apparitional identity is at peril. This effort culminated in the segmentation of Bengal in 1905. The partition was make along communal lines.The British had realized that a joined India was a strong India and hence they decided to separate Hindus and Muslims, the study universe of India. As a force India would not be united and would roost weak. The British continued this strategy of divide and triumph and finally India was change integrity. This policy left a deep impact on the Indians, the communal aversion between Hindus and Muslim is still prevalent and has taken a major form. This has resulted in many riots and caused major harm to life and property.Revolt of 1857The British East India phoner came to India as traders but slowly took over the rule in India and in no time the whole of India was under the British rule. India was the spaciousst and the most important colony of Britain. They made immense profits in their rule, but they treated Indians as an inferior race. Indians were tortured and treated like slaves, they were forced to grow Indigo and as a result the cottage industries suffered a heavy setback. Slowly over a period of time Indians realized about their rights and got to know about nationalism. They also fought for freedom in numerous revolts, but all of them were crushed as the Indians were not united. slightly of the famous revolts were the Santhal Rebellion, Indigo revolts and many more. These small revolts took shape of a national movement and emerged in the form of the revolt of 1857https//mail.google.com/mail/images/cleardot.gifThe greatest and the most widespread armed uprising which shook the foundations of the British rule in India was the Revolt Of 1857.The accumulating hatred against British rule which had resulted in numerous, though localized, outbreaks belch in a mighty rebellion in 1857.The dispossessed rulers of Indian states, the nobles and the zamindars who had been deprived of their lands, the Indian soldiers of Britains army in India and the vast dopees of peasants, artisans and the others who had been done for(p) by British economic policies and had been rising up in revolts in their isolated pockets, were now united by the common aim of overthrowing British rule. The introduction of greases cartridges which showed the British rulers complete disreg ard of the ghostlike beliefs of the Indian mountain provided the immediate cause of the revolt. The soldiers killed the British officers and marched to Delhi. They conquered Delhi and proclaimed the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as the emperor of India. The rebellion spread like wild fire and the British rule ceased to exist over a vast part of blue and Central India for many months. The major centres of the revolt, besides Delhi, where some of the fiercest battles were fought were Kanpur, Lukhnow, Bareilly and Bundelkhand. This victory was transient as British reconquered the states and Indian rule was back in the manoeuver of the British.The revolt was over and now the power had been transferred from the British East India Company to the British Crown. The Queen had decided herself to take care of the Indian politics as she had realized that the conditions had become far worse than expectations. Many promises were made to the Indians regarding their welfare under th e Queens Proclamation, but hardly any were followed. The conditions had not improved and the same tactics were used in a belittled form.Rise of Indian NationalismNationalism is a sentiment base on common cultural characteristics that binds a population and often produces a policy of national independency or separatism. It involves the feeling of oneness and marriage for your own countrymen.The growth of Indian nationalism started in the nineteenth century. Political unification of India, fall of Indias old social and economic system, the beginning of neo trade and industry and the rise of new social classes laid the bag of nationalism.The social and religious reform movements and popular anti-British revolts contributed to the growth of nationalism. The farmers were suffering under the new land tenure systems introduced by the British government. The Indian industrialists were sad because of the economic policy of the British government. All import duties on cotton fiber texti les were removed in 1882, which harmed the textile industry.The people of India became aware of the fact that the discipline of their country was not possible unless British rule was ended. There was a series of famines, which took a toll of millions of human lives, due to the indifference of the supreme British administration.Indian Nationalism was broadly divided into three phases maintain phaseRadical phaseGandhian phaseThe Moderates advocated and used methods of original agitation for demanding reforms. They had faith in British and thought that the British would ascertain to their demands. They considered British just and kind. Some of the famous leaders were Dada Bhai Naoroji, Go blood brother Krishna Gokhale and Surendranath BannerjeeThe self-assertive Nationalists had no faith in British rule, they thought that India could not build under the British rule and freedom was necessary for their development. They believed that this could only be done by adopting aggressive methods. Some of the important leaders were Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra pal and Aurobindo GhoshThe Gandhian Phase was led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi he devised the methods of Ahimsa (non-violence) and Satyagraha (insistence on truth) to lay down independence. He converted the Indian freedom struggle into a mass movement Gandhiji played a very important role in the independence of India. section of BengalThe finis took effect the Partition of Bengal was announced in July 1905 by the Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon. The partition took effect in October 1905 and uncaring the largely Muslim eastern areas from the largely Hindu western areas. The effort behind the partition that was officially announced was that the Bengal province was too large to be administered by a single governor and therefore was partitioned on administrative purpose. But the real reason behind the partition was political and not administrative. East Bengal was dominated by the Muslims and West Bengal by the Hindus. Partition was yet another part of the Divide and rule policy. Indians were outraged at what they recognise as a divide and rule policy, where the colonisers turned the inherent population against itself in order to rule. This partition provided an impetus to the religious divide and rule, as a result of that, All India Muslim partnership and All India Hindu Mahasabha was formed. Both the organisations aimed at fanning communal passions.Muslim confederacyThe All-India Muslim League was a political society during the period of the British draw rein which advocated the creation of a separate Muslim-majority nation. Being a political party to secure the interests of the Muslim diaspora in British India, the Muslim League played a decisive role during the 1940s in the Indian independence movement and developed into the driving force behind the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state in the Indian subcontinent. Muslim League was a political organization of India and Pakistan, founded 1906 as the All-India Muslim League by Aga Khan III. Its original purpose was to safeguard the political rights of Muslims in India.By 1940, under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, it had gained such power that, for the first time, it demanded the establishment of a Muslim state (Pakistan), despite the opposition of the Indian National Congress. During human race War II the Congress was banned, but the League, which supported the British war effort, was allowed to function and gained strength. It won nearly the entire Muslim voter turnout in the elections of 1946. The following year saw the division of the Indian subcontinent and the Muslim League became the major political party of newly formed Pakistan. By 1953, however, dissensions within the League had led to the formation of several different political partiesHindu MahasabhaSeparate ElectoratesSeparate electorate is a system of election to legislatures which divides voters along the lines o f their trust or sociality designed to ensure that each religious or ethnic group can elect their own representatives. In the case of separate electorates, the voting population of a country or region is divided into different electorates, based on certain factors such as religion, caste, gender, and occupation. Here, members of each electorate votes only to elect representatives for their electorate. It was used in India, prior to Independence, to guarantee authority for religious minorities. Separate electorates have been criticized as socially divisive, and for privileging one reflexion of social identity above all others.In Indias pre-independence era, when the Muslims in India demanded uninfected representation in power-sharing with the British government along with the Hindus, the British government provided for a separate electorate system for the Muslims. As a result, of the total 250 sit of the Bengal Legislative Assembly, 117 seats were kept reserved for the Muslims. Efforts of Gandhi to bridge Hindu Muslim GapOne of the greatest contributions of Mahatma Gandhi was his unparalleled attempt at Hindu- Muslim Unity. Although he could not accomplish this task at the end still he fought for its realisation throughout his life. His always said Even if I am killed, I will not give up reiterate the names of Ram and Rahim, which mean to me the same God. With these names on my lips, I will die cheerfully. He believed all religions to be true but not fallible. To Gandhiji Hindu-Muslim unity means unity not only between Hindu and Muslims but also between all those who believe India to be their home, no matter to what faith they belong. He believed that it was a criminal to animosity over trivialities. Gandhiji knew that India could not attain freedom without Hindu Muslim unity, so he worked for the cause. To attain freedom India had to be united as one nation, they had to fight together for a common cause. He realized this and took returns of this in th e Khilafat issue.The Khilafat movement (1919-1924) was a pan-Islamic, political protest campaign launched by Muslims in British India to influence the British government and to protect the tuffet Empire during the aftermath of World War I. The position of Caliph was in danger and Ottoman Empire existence was short-lived, but the Caliph was the religious representative of the Muslims so they decided to launch a movement against the British. The Khilafat execution was launched under the Ali Brothers, Gandhiji decided to support this movement to win the support of Muslims.Gandhiji thus strived for Hindu Muslim unity and considered Muslims as his brothers. Hindu Muslim controversy would cause partition of India which would result in a weak India, this was on the nose what the British wanted. They wanted a weak and divided India as it would be easy to govern it. This partition would result in various riots and bloodshed, it would result in a divided India, thus Gandhiji was against the partition from the startMountbatten externaliseThe positive division of British India between the two new dominions was ended according to what has come to be known as the 3 June political platform or Mountbatten invention. Lord Mountbatten worked out a detailed plan for the transfer of power to the Indian people. It was announced at a press gathering by Mountbatten on 4 June 1947, when the date of independence was also announced 15 August 1947. The plans main points wereHindus and Muslims in Punjab and Bengal legislative assemblies would meet and vote for partition. If a simple majority of either group wanted partition, because these provinces would be divided.Sindh was to take its own decision.The fate of North West confines Province and Sylhet district of Bengal was to be decided by a referendum.India would be independent by 15 August 1947.The separate independence of Bengal also ruled out.A boundary commission to be set up in case of partition.The Indian political le aders accepted the Plan on 2 June. It did not deal with the question of the princely states, but on 3 June Mountbatten advised them against remaining independent and urged them to join one of the two new dominions (India or Pakistan).RiotingThe British conquest of India was accompanied by large-scale violence, sometimes directed toward the Indian civilian population. During the compound wars of conquest, there were mass killings, but few are remembered. Violence between Hindus and Muslims is one of the most publicized features of colonial Indias history. Some, particularly Indian historiographer Gyan Pandey, hold that its characterization as violence between religious communities was invented by colonial administrators in the 19th century, and that it misrepresented forms of violence which were in fact extremely complex. Others see in it a faithful reflection of the actual crystallization of communitarian identities based on religion, in response to certain colonial policies. Whi chever is the case, Hindu-Muslim riots became a permanent feature of the Indian political scene in the first half of the twentieth century. The main reason for these riots were the divide and rule policy which had instigated everything. These riots were hindrance in Indias independence because they made India weak and this is what the British wanted. If India was weak then their rule would become even stronger, as a result India was divided and Hindu Muslim riots are still prevalent.lastly Partition of IndiaThe British had laid their roots long ago, now the Hindu Muslim rivalry had become severe and Partition of India now could not be stopped. The partition of India was the partition of British India on the basis of religious demographics. This led to the creation of the sovereign states of the Dominion of Pakistan (later the Islamic country of Pakistan and the Peoples nation of Bangladesh) and the Union of India (later Republic of India) which took place in 1947, on 14 and 15 Aug ust, respectively.The partition of India was set forth in the Indian Independence fiddle 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the Indian Empire and the end of the British Raj. With the decision in favour of partition made, the parties next faced this nearly out(predicate) task of fixing a border between the new states. The Muslims sedulous two main regions in the north on opposite sides of the country, disjunct by a majority-Hindu section. In addition, throughout most of northern India members of the two religions were mixed together not to mention populations of Sikhs, Christians and other minority faiths. The Sikhs campaigned for a nation of their own, but their appeal was denied. On August 14, 1947, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan was founded.